From which plants is sugar most often obtained? What is sugar, formula and composition of table sugar

Read: History of Sugar
Read: Sugarcane

Sugar plants

In North America we could extract sugar from the sugar maple, a huge tree forty meters high. At the beginning of March, cuts are made on the trunks. The juice flowing from them is collected in special vessels and boiled. Once cooled, it turns into sugar. Only its color is brown.

In the jungles of Indochina, the Sunda and Philippine Islands, or the Malay Archipelago, we could extract sugar from the sap of the sugar palm. Its thick trunk, covered with unusually strong fibers reminiscent of horsehair, reaches a height of 13 meters and ends with a majestic crown. But the most important thing about this tree is the sap that accumulates in the inflorescences. This is how it is mined. When the time comes for the hairy sugar palm to bloom, the places where the inflorescences are attached to the branches are hit with sticks. This results in an increased flow of juice. Then the inflorescences are cut off, and sugary juice flows out abundantly from the cuts. Every day, an adult palm tree produces up to four liters. The juice is boiled until it thickens and poured into vessels. So much for sugar. True, black.

Sugar cane grows in almost all tropical countries. Its smooth stems sometimes reach six meters in height. When the cane is ripe, it is cut, the juice is squeezed out under pressure, evaporated - and sugar crystals are obtained. This was done in ancient India, and a little later - in China.

The first Europeans to try cane sugar were the soldiers of the great commander Alexander the Great, who carried out the Indian campaign in 327 BC. The retinue of the king of Macedonia included not only military leaders and courtiers, but also scientists. One of them, the botanist Theophrastus, quite accurately described the situation with Indian sugar: “In India, a plant similar to reed produces sweet salt.” There were amazing stories about sugar. They said that this is the dust that Indian witches collect from the horns of the new moon. It was reported that sugar in India is falling straight from the sky...

For many centuries, sugar cane remained a wonderful but mysterious plant for most Europeans. Only in the 13th century was it brought to Venice by the Italian traveler Marco Polo. But still, sugar was considered an extremely rare product.

Little by little, sugar cane began to be grown in almost all countries with a suitable climate. One of the main suppliers of sugar cane was the island of Cuba, which became known only after Columbus discovered America.

Sugar cane does not grow in our country. Well, sugar can be extracted from birch, melon, watermelon, juniper, even reeds. But this is a rather labor-intensive process. But we have sugar beets!

The distant ancestor of sugar beet still grows today in the countries of the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

But wild beet root contains only one percent sugar. In general, beets are a rather unprepossessing plant. Its reputation in ancient times was corresponding. The Persians considered beets a symbol of quarrels and gossip. This opinion passed on to the Greeks, giving rise to a peculiar custom. If the spouses were constantly in conflict with each other, the neighbors would throw beets into their yard as a sign that they did not approve of the constant troubles. Later, beets were not particularly valued in Europe either. The English traveler of the 17th century, John Clark, wrote with surprise that in Russia beets have several uses: firstly, they are served as a snack to stimulate the appetite, and secondly, walls are sprayed with beetroot broth, which kills bedbugs.

Only in 1747 did the Berlin pharmacist Markgraf draw attention to the sugar content in this wonderful plant. But this did not significantly affect the position of the beets. It changed when, in 1811, the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, wanting to undermine England's trade in cane sugar, awarded a million francs prize to anyone who could find a way to make sugar from European products. The thoughts of scientists and agronomists began to work hard. New beet varieties with increased sugar content were developed and technologies were developed. The final results were achieved by 1830, when the emperor was already in his grave and there was no talk of a reward. It’s a shame, of course, but what’s more important is that Europe now has its own sugar. Life for Europeans immediately became sweeter.

And in America, at the end of the 19th century, to encourage the cultivation of sugar beets, the state paid farmers one dollar for every centner of sugar extracted from it.

Usually neither breakfast, nor lunch, nor dinner can be done without sugar. There is always something sweet on our table: candy, cookies, compote, jam, sweet tea or porridge. We are as accustomed to sugar on the table as we are to bread and salt.

But sugar is not salt; you can’t get it from salt water. There are no deposits of sugar in nature. Where do these sweet white crystals come from? Sugar is given to us by various plants, mainly sugar beets and sugar cane, and in Canada, also the sugar maple growing there.

Beetroot as a cultivated plant was known back in Babylonia in the 18th century. BC e., but its leaves were taken for food. The beets we are familiar with have been bred for many centuries. Fodder beets were developed only in the 16th century. in Germany. After long work there, two centuries later, in the 18th century, they received sugar beets. In both Europe and Russia, sugar was made from beets only at the beginning of the 19th century. Varieties of sugar beets have been developed whose root crops contain up to 20% sugar. Sugar beets are grown only in Europe and the USA.

More than half of the world's sugar is made from sugar cane. It is believed that sugarcane was first cultivated in India. In Europe they learned about it only after Alexander the Great’s campaigns in India. The ancestor of sugar cane is considered to be wild sugar cane, growing in Asia, including Central Asia. Its cultivated descendant is up to 6 meters high, it has a thick stem up to 5 cm in diameter with a sweet fragrant core. It contains up to 20% sugar.

People have long noticed that nodules appear on the roots of lupine, clover, peanuts, alfalfa, sweet clover, beans, peas, soybeans, chickpeas, in general, all agricultural plants. And it has long been known that root crops and grains deplete the soil, and plants planted in fields after legumes produce a good harvest. The ancient Greek scientist, philosopher and botanist Theophrastus wrote about this...

Scientists believe that there are about 450 species of oak trees in the world. These are mostly large trees, but there are also shrubs. In Spain, the bush oak grows, no more than 2-3 meters high. On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, in East Asia, in North and Central America, oak trees have smaller and stiffer leaves than in central Russia. There it is...

Until late autumn, bright red clusters of viburnum remain hanging on the bushes. They are especially beautiful when there are no leaves left on the bushes. And after the first frost, the berries become edible, although they are still somewhat bitter. If you boil them a little with sugar and put the jar in the refrigerator, then in winter you will have not only a tasty, but also a medicinal dessert. Kalina...

In the villages of Western Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, on the night of June 22, the holiday of Ivan Kupala is celebrated. There is a belief that the fern blooms only this one night. And whoever finds his flower will be happy. But, unfortunately, no one has ever seen a fern flower. After all, a fern does not have flowers. What about the seeds? How…

Many of us love this light, almost clear oil. It is called olive, or Provençal. It is made from olive fruits. The ancient Greeks called it olive. Olive is an evergreen tree or shrub up to 10 m high. Leathery, glossy, shiny, regularly shaped oval leaves sit opposite each other. Inflorescences with small whitish fragrant flowers appear in the axils of the leaves...

Once you bite into the velvety skin, you will feel the taste and aroma of the tender and elastic, juicy and aromatic peach pulp. Where do these beautiful fruits come from? Who was the first to grow them? Scientists have found that peaches come from China. It was there that all six species of wild peaches known to botanists were found. Peaches have been grown in China since ancient times. Consider,…

Many of you have tried this very tasty and aromatic fruit. Outwardly, it looks like a cone, covered with scales. The top of the pineapple is crowned with a tuft. Anyone who tastes pineapple once will remember its taste for the rest of his life. The birthplace of the pineapple is probably Brazil, where it still grows wild. In 1502, the Portuguese planted this plant on the island of St. Helena...

Many people love cinnamon cookies. On top it is sprinkled with a thin, fragrant brownish powder. Its sharp, spicy aroma is not forgotten for a long time. Cinnamon is the ground bark of the Ceylon cinnamon tree, a small evergreen tree. In addition to the island of Sri Lanka, it also grows in southern India. This tree produces the best cinnamon in the world. The bark of Chinese cinnamon, or cassia, is somewhat inferior in quality.

The orchid flower was first mentioned by the ancient Greek botanist and scientist Theophrastus, who lived in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. In Europe, orchids are not so beautiful and for a very long time people were interested in them only as supposed medicinal plants. But in America and Asia they were highly valued for their beauty. In China, they began to be grown in gardens more than...

Once upon a time, 190-195 million years ago, these trees grew everywhere on the planet. Lizards and the first birds flew above them. The first mammals were hiding under them. Ginkgo trees then mainly comprised forests in what is now Siberia and all temperate regions. Imprints of ginkgo leaves are constantly found in rocks of that time. Ginkgos grow on...

Introduction.

3000 BC e. On the territory of modern India, a perennial herbaceous plant of the genus Saccharum was already cultivated. The sweet crystals that were obtained from sugar cane juice were called “sakkara” by local residents, from “sarkara”, which literally meant “gravel, pebbles, sand” when translated from one of the local ancient languages. The root of this word has entered many languages and is clearly associated with sugar: in Greek sugar is saccharon, in Latin saccharum, in Arabic sukkar, in Italian zucchero... And so on right up to the Russian “sugar”.

Sugar(sucrose) is a sweet crystalline substance isolated mainly from the juice of sugar cane or sugar beets. In its pure (refined) form, sugar is white, and its crystals are colorless. The brownish color of many of its varieties is explained by the admixture of various amounts of molasses - condensed plant juice that envelops the crystals. Sugar is a high-calorie food; its energy value is approx. 400 kcal per 100 g. It is easily digested and easily absorbed by the body, i.e. it is a fairly concentrated and quickly mobilized source of energy. Sugar is an important ingredient in various dishes, drinks, bakery and confectionery products. It is added to tea, coffee, cocoa; it is the main component of candies, glazes, creams and ice cream. Sugar is used in meat preservation, leather tanning and in the tobacco industry. It serves as a preservative in jams, jellies and other fruit products. Sugar is also important for the chemical industry. It is used to produce thousands of derivatives used in a wide range of applications, including plastics, pharmaceuticals, fizzy drinks and frozen foods.

History of sugar.

The production of sugar for consumption goes back centuries.

The initial raw material for sugar production was sugar cane, which is considered to have originated in India. Warriors of Alexander the Great participating in the campaign to India in the 4th century. BC, the first Europeans became acquainted with this plant. Upon returning from India, they spoke with delight about cane, from which honey can be obtained without the help of bees, and the fermented drink can be consumed like strong wine. Gradually, sugarcane spreads from India to neighboring countries with warm climates.

Ancient manuscripts contain information about the cultivation of sugar cane in China in the 2nd century. BC, and in the 1st century. BC. Sugar cane has already begun to be grown in Java, Sumatra and other islands of Indonesia. The cultivation of cane and the production of sugar from it in Arabia is mentioned by the Roman scientist Pliny, the eldest in the 1st century. AD The Arabs brought the culture of growing and processing sugar cane during the conquest of Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Spain, Sicily in the 7th-9th centuries, and in the 9th century. Venice began to trade in cane sugar.

The Crusades contributed to the spread of the use of sugar cane for sugar production in European countries, including Kievan Rus.

The Venetians, the first Europeans, learned to make refined sugar from raw cane sugar. But for a very long time, until the beginning of the 18th century. sugar remained a great rarity on European tables. Portugal played a major role in the spread of sugar cane and the production of sugar from it. In the 15th century The Portuguese planted sugar cane on the islands of Madeira and Sao Tome in the Atlantic Ocean, and after Columbus discovered America, large plantations appeared on the islands of Haiti, Cuba, Jamaica, and then in Mexico, Brazil, and Peru. Trendsetters in sugar production in the 17th century. became Holland. She began intensively establishing sugar cane plantations in her colonies, and also significantly expanded sugar production in Java. At the same time, the first sugar factories began to be built in the city of Amsterdam. A little later, similar factories appeared in England, Germany, and France. The history of the Russian sugar industry begins in 1719 with the construction of the first sugar factories in St. Petersburg and Moscow.

In Russia, for the production of sweet syrups, drinks and liqueurs, they used not sugar cane, but dried or dried root vegetables of beets, rutabaga, and turnips. Beetroot has been cultivated since ancient times. In ancient Assyria and Babylon, beets were grown already 1.5 thousand years BC. Cultivated forms of beets have been known in the Middle East since the 8th-6th centuries. BC. And in Egypt, beets served as the main food for slaves. Thus, from wild forms of beets, thanks to appropriate selection, varieties of fodder, table and white beets were gradually created. The first varieties of sugar beets were developed from white varieties of table beets.

Historians of science associate the appearance of a new alternative to cane, sugar plant, with the epoch-making discovery of the German chemist, member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences A. S. Marggraf (1705-1782). In a report at a meeting of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1747, he outlined the results of experiments on obtaining crystalline sugar from beets. The resulting sugar, as Marggraf claimed, was not inferior in taste to cane sugar. However, Marggraf did not see broad prospects for the practical application of his discovery. Marggraf's student, F. K. Achard (1753-1821), went further in researching and studying this discovery. Since 1784, he actively took up the improvement, further development and implementation of his teacher’s discovery into practice.

Akhard understood perfectly well that one of the most important conditions for the success of a new, very promising business is the improvement of raw materials - beets, i.e. increasing its sugar content. Already in 1799, Achard's work was crowned with success. A new branch of cultivated beet has appeared - sugar. In 1801, on his estate in Kuzern (Silesia), Achard built one of the first sugar factories in Europe, where he mastered the production of sugar from beets. A commission sent by the Paris Academy of Sciences conducted a survey of the Akhardov plant and came to the conclusion that the production of sugar from beets was unprofitable.

Only the only English industrialists at that time, who were monopolists in the production and sale of cane sugar, saw sugar beets as a serious competitor and several times offered Achard large sums on the condition that he refuse to carry out his work and publicly declare the futility of producing sugar from beets .

But Akhard, who firmly believed in the prospects of the new sugar plant, did not compromise. Since 1806, France has abandoned the production of sugar from cane and switched to beet sugar, which has become increasingly widespread over time. Napoleon provided great support to those who showed a desire to grow beets and produce sugar from them, because... saw in the development of a new industry an opportunity for the simultaneous development of agriculture and industry.

It should be noted that in France, along with the development of sugar production from beets, much attention was paid to improving the quality of beets as a raw material for the sugar industry.

This was facilitated by the successful activities of one of the first large breeding and seed companies in Europe, Vilmorin-Andrieu, founded by F.V. Vilmorin. The company has gained worldwide fame and has been successfully operating for about two hundred years, supplying seeds of various agricultural crops of its own selection to many countries around the world.

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUGAR PRODUCTION IN RUSSIA AND UKRAINE.

The first mention in historical documents of the appearance of crystalline sugar in ancient Rus', imported “with overseas goods,” appeared in 1273, but for the population it was an inaccessible product for a long time. Sugar began to enter the markets of Russia and Ukraine more widely, starting from the 17th century, through the ports of the Black and Baltic Seas from various colonial countries. At first, sugar was a delicacy and was used as an expensive medicine. But over time, sugar consumption has expanded. At the beginning of the 18th century. Due to the advent of such exotic drinks as tea and coffee, sugar consumption has increased significantly. The introduction of a duty on the import of sugar forced Russian merchants to take a new look at the sugar trade. Many of them began to understand that it was much more profitable to establish their own sugar production based on imported raw sugar. In 1718, the first government document appeared on the organization of sugar production in Russia. It was the Decree of Peter I that “the Moscow merchant Pavel Vestov should start a sugar factory in Moscow with his own money,” i.e. at his own expense, while he received privileges for 10 years and the right to import raw sugar, as well as “in Moscow, cook head sugar from it and sell it duty-free for three years.”

“In March 1718, Peter gave a ten-year privilege to the Moscow merchant Vestov to set up a sugar factory, with the right to establish a company and recruit whoever he wanted into it. He was given the privilege for three years to import raw sugar from abroad duty-free and to trade his sugar in the heads duty-free. In addition, a promise was made: if the plant multiplies, then to completely ban the import of sugar from abroad. And indeed, on April 20, 1721, the import of sugar from abroad was completely prohibited.” [N.I. Kostomarov. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures. Chapter 15. PETER THE GREAT]

In 1723, Pavel Vestov completed the construction of sugar refineries in Moscow and Kaluga. The demand for sugar continued to increase and this prompted sugar refiners to increase its production from imported raw materials. New sugar factories are appearing. Among the largest of them, at that time, was Vladimirov’s Moscow plant. By the end of the 18th century. In Russia, 20 factories were built and put into production using imported raw sugar. Interest in sugar production increased every year. Many scientists of that time were concerned with the question of what local raw materials could be used to obtain sugar. The search went in different directions. In the book of Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences P.S. Pallas “Description of plants of the Russian state with their images” it was first pointed out that from “maple sap..., from beets... etc. it is possible to extract just as much sugar as from Indian sugarcane. In 1786, an attempt was made to “cook sugar” from the “cane of the Caspian Sea”, i.e. from sweet sorghum. The year 1799 was marked by the fact that almost simultaneously the teacher of Moscow University I.Ya. Bindgeym and academician

Petersburg Academy of Sciences T.E. Lovitz obtained sugar from beets. At the same time, the center of sugar beet production began to shift to Ukraine, where there were more fertile lands, soils suitable for growing sugar beets, a milder climate and sufficient labor force.

The outstanding Ukrainian scientist-economist, academician of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences K.G. Vobliy, established that the first sugar factory in Ukraine was built in 1824 in the village of Makoshin, Chernigov province, Sosnitsa district.

It should be noted that the authorities fully contributed to the development of beet growing and the sugar industry on fertile Ukrainian lands. The construction of the first sugar factories and the wonderful prospects that sugar production promised caused a real boom among the first sugar growers.

The most popular topic, which was discussed with interest at balls and in the foyers of theaters, in salons and at noble meetings, was the production of sugar.

In the 30-50s of the 19th century. the number of sugar factories has increased significantly. Beet sugar production was widely promoted in many periodicals as the most effective way to increase the profitability of agriculture.

The fact is that an average sugar factory by the standards of that time in the 50s of the 19th century. annually gave up to 20% profit on the capital invested in the enterprise (fixed and working capital). Such high profitability led to the rapid growth of the sugar industry.

But everything comes in time. For many reasons, which primarily include raw materials (small areas of landowners' lands allocated for beets, low yields and sugar content), technical and technological, the boom began to slowly subside. Rose dreams did not come true. Small primitive sugar factories began to bring only losses instead of the expected profits. The number of factories began to decline catastrophically. In 1887, the number of sugar factories decreased to 218 against 380, which were operating at the end of pre-reform times.

The first crisis began in the sugar industry.

It is difficult to say how long this crisis would have lasted if Count Alexey Alekseevich Bobrinsky had not taken up the task of reviving the sugar industry.

Sources of sugar.

Several hundred different sugars are known in nature. Each green plant produces certain substances belonging to this group. In the process of photosynthesis, glucose is first formed from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and water obtained mainly from the soil under the influence of solar energy, and then it is converted into other sugars. In different parts of the world, in addition to cane and beet sugar, several other products are used as sweeteners, such as corn syrup, maple syrup, honey, sorghum sugar, palm sugar and malt sugar. Corn syrup is a very viscous, almost colorless liquid obtained directly from corn starch. The Aztecs, who consumed this sweet syrup, made it from corn in much the same way as sugar is made from cane in our time. Molasses is significantly inferior to refined sugar in terms of sweetness, but it makes it possible to regulate the crystallization process in the manufacture of sweets and is much cheaper than sugar, therefore it is widely used in confectionery. Honey, which is high in fructose and glucose, is more expensive than sugar, and is added to some foods only when a special taste is required. The same is true with maple syrup, which is valued primarily for its specific aroma. A sugary syrup is obtained from the stalks of sorghum, which has been used in China since ancient times. Sugar from it, however, has never been refined so well that it could successfully compete with beet or cane sugar. India is practically the only country where palm sugar is produced on a commercial scale, but this country produces much more cane sugar. In Japan, malt sugar produced from starchy rice or millet has been used as a sweet additive for over 2000 years. This substance (maltose) can also be obtained from ordinary starch using yeast. It is much inferior to sucrose in sweetness, but is used in the manufacture of baked goods and various types of baby food. Prehistoric man satisfied his need for sugar through honey and fruits. Some flowers, whose nectar contains a small amount of sucrose, probably served the same purpose. In India, more than 4,000 years ago, a kind of raw sugar was extracted from the flowers of the Madhuca tree. Africans in the Cape Colony used the species Melianthus major for this, and the Boers in South Africa used Protea cynaroides. In the Bible, honey is mentioned quite often, and “sweet cane” only twice, from which we can conclude that honey was the main sweetener in biblical times; This, by the way, is confirmed by historical evidence, according to which in the Middle East sugar cane

began to be grown in the first centuries AD. To a less sophisticated palate, refined cane and beet sugar are practically indistinguishable. Raw sugar, an intermediate production product containing an admixture of plant juice, is a different matter. Here the difference is very noticeable: raw cane sugar is quite suitable for consumption (if, of course, it is obtained in adequate sanitary conditions), while beet sugar tastes unpleasant. Molasses (molasses), an important by-product of sugar production, also differs in taste: cane in England is readily eaten, but beet is not suitable for food.

Production.

If the refining of beet sugar is carried out directly at beet sugar factories, then the purification of cane sugar, which contains only 96-97% sucrose, requires special refineries where contaminants are separated from raw sugar crystals: ash, water and components united by the general concept of “non-sugar.” ". The latter include scraps of plant fibers, wax covering the cane stem, protein, small amounts of cellulose, salts and fats. Only thanks to the enormous scale

m production of refined cane and beet sugar, this product is so cheap today.

Subtleties of production.

In the old days, taking advantage of the cheapness of slave labor, planters did not consider it necessary to mechanize labor in sugar factories. And the juice was squeezed out of crushed cane chips by hand - it was hard labor. Now the labor of slaves was taken over by machines in which the reed is wrung out like in a washing machine - laundry. The waste is used for fuel, although it is strange to imagine that in tropical countries something needs to be heated. And the sweet juice is heated and impurities are removed. Thus, pure sugar juice flows out of the unit. It is carefully evaporated for a long time until the liquid reaches the required density, and the crystallization process is started. It can occur in three stages, due to which we have sugar of different colors and textures.

Consumption.

Based on statistics, refined sugar consumption in the country is directly proportional to per capita income. The leaders here include, for example, Australia, Ireland and Denmark, where over 45 kg of refined sugar per person per year, while in China it is only 6.1 kg. In many tropical countries where sugar cane is grown, this figure is much lower than in the United States (41.3 kg), but people there have the opportunity to consume sucrose in other forms, usually in fruits and sugary drinks.

CANE SUGAR.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) is a perennial, very tall herbaceous species of the grass family, cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions for the sucrose it contains, as well as some by-products of sugar production. The plant resembles bamboo: its cylindrical stems, often reaching a height of 6-7.3 m with a thickness of 1.5-8 cm, grow in bunches. Sugar is obtained from their juice. At the nodes of the stems there are buds, or “eyes,” that develop into short side shoots. From them, cuttings are obtained that are used to propagate reeds. Seeds are formed in the apical panicle inflorescences. They are used for breeding new varieties and only in exceptional cases as seed material. The plant requires a lot of sun, heat and water, as well as fertile soil. That is why sugar cane is cultivated only in areas with a hot and humid climate. Under favorable conditions, it grows very quickly; its plantations before harvesting resemble impenetrable jungles. In Louisiana (USA), sugar cane matures in 6-7 months, in Cuba it takes a year, and in Hawaii - 1.5-2 years. To ensure maximum sucrose content in the stems (10-17% by weight), the crop is harvested as soon as the plant stops growing in height. If harvesting is done manually (using long machete knives), the shoots are cut off close to the ground, after which the leaves are removed and the stems are cut into short pieces that are convenient for processing. Manual harvesting is used where labor is cheap or the site features do not allow efficient use of machines. On large plantations, they usually use technology that first burns out the lower layer of vegetation. Fire destroys the bulk of weeds without damaging the sugar cane, and the mechanization of the process significantly reduces the cost of production.

History of cane sugar.

The right to be considered the birthplace of sugar cane is disputed by two regions - the fertile valleys in northeast India and the Polynesian islands in the South Pacific. However, botanical studies, ancient literary sources and etymological data speak in favor of India. Many of the woody wild plants found there

Sugarcane varieties do not differ in their main characteristics from modern cultural forms. Sugarcane is mentioned in the Laws of Manu and other holy books of the Hindus. The word "sugar" itself comes from the Sanskrit sarkara (gravel, sand or sugar); centuries later the term entered Arabic as sukkar and medieval Latin as succarum. From India, sugarcane culture between 1800 and 1700 BC. entered China. This is evidenced by several Chinese sources, who report that people living in the Ganges Valley taught the Chinese to obtain sugar by boiling its stems. From China, ancient sailors probably brought it to the Philippines, Java and even Hawaii. When Spanish sailors arrived in the Pacific many centuries later, wild sugar cane was already growing on many Pacific islands. Apparently, the first mention of sugar in ancient times dates back to the time of Alexander the Great's campaign in India. In 327 BC. one of his commanders, Nearchus, reported: “They say that in India there is a reed that produces honey without the help of bees; as if an intoxicating drink can also be prepared from it, although there are no fruits on this plant.” Five hundred years later, Galen, the chief medical authority of the Ancient World, recommended "sakcharon from India and Arabia" as a remedy for diseases of the stomach, intestines and kidneys. The Persians, too, although much later, adopted the habit of consuming sugar from the Indians and at the same time did a lot to improve the methods of refining it. Already in the 700s, Nestorian monks in the Euphrates Valley successfully produced white sugar using ash to refine it. The Arabs, who spread from the 7th to the 9th centuries. their possessions in the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, brought sugar cane culture to the Mediterranean. A few centuries later, the crusaders returning from the Holy Land introduced sugar to all of Western Europe. As a result of the collision of these two great expansions, Venice, located at the crossroads of the trade routes of the Muslim and Christian worlds, eventually became the center of the European sugar trade and remained so for more than 500 years. At the beginning of the 15th century. Portuguese and Spanish sailors spread sugar cane culture to the Atlantic islands. His plantations first appeared in Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. In 1506, Pedro de Atienza ordered the planting of sugar cane in Santo Domingo (Haiti) - thus this crop penetrated into the New World. In just about 30 years after its appearance in the Caribbean, it spread there so widely that it became one of the main ones in the West Indies, which is now called the “sugar islands”. The role of sugar produced here grew rapidly with increasing demand for it in the countries of Northern Europe, especially after the Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and the importance of the Eastern Mediterranean as a supplier of sugar fell. With the spread of sugarcane in the West Indies and its penetration

crops to South America required more and more workers to grow and process it. The natives who survived the invasion of the first conquerors turned out to be of little use for exploitation, and the planters found a way out by importing slaves from Africa. After all, sugar production became inextricably linked to the slave system and the bloody riots it generated that rocked the West Indian islands in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the beginning, sugar cane presses were driven by oxen or horses. Later, in areas blown by trade winds, they were replaced by more efficient wind engines. However, production in general was still quite primitive. After pressing the raw cane, the resulting juice was purified with lime, clay or ash, and then evaporated in copper or iron vats, under which a fire was lit. Refining was reduced to dissolving the crystals, boiling the mixture and subsequent re-crystallization. Even in our time, the remains of stone millstones and abandoned copper vats remind us in the West Indies of the past owners of the islands, who made fortunes from this profitable trade. By the middle of the 17th century. Santo Domingo and Brazil became the main sugar producers in the world. On the territory of the modern United States, sugar cane first appeared in 1791 in Louisiana, where it was brought by the Jesuits from Santo Domingo. True, they initially grew it here mainly to chew the sweet stems. However, forty years later, two enterprising colonists, Antonio Mendez and Etienne de Boré, established his plantations on the site of present-day New Orleans, with the goal of producing refined sugar for sale. After de Bore's business was successful, other landowners followed his example, and sugar cane began to be cultivated throughout Louisiana. Subsequently, the main events in the history of cane sugar come down to important improvements in the technology of its cultivation, mechanical processing and final purification of the product.

Sugar cane processing.

The cane is first crushed to facilitate further extraction of the juice. Then it goes to a three-roll squeezing press. Typically, the cane is pressed twice, wetting it with water between the first and second times to dilute the sweet liquid contained in the bagasse (this process is called maceration). The resulting so-called "diffusion juice" (usually gray or dark green) contains sucrose, glucose, gum, pectin, acids and various types of impurities. The methods of its purification have changed little over the centuries. Previously, the juice was heated in large vats over an open fire, and

to remove “non-sugars”, ash was added to it; Nowadays, lime milk is used to precipitate impurities. Where sugar is produced for local consumption, the diffusion juice is treated with sulfur dioxide (sulfur dioxide) immediately before adding lime to speed up bleaching and purification. The sugar turns out yellowish, i.e. not completely purified, but quite pleasant to the taste. In both cases, after adding lime, the juice is poured into a settling tank-illuminator and kept there at 110-116 ° C under pressure. The next important step in the production of raw sugar is evaporation. The juice flows through pipes into evaporators, where it is heated by steam passing through a closed pipe system. When the concentration of dry matter reaches 40-50%, evaporation is continued in vacuum devices. The result is a mass of sugar crystals suspended in thick molasses, the so-called. massecuite. The massecuite is centrifuged, removing the molasses through the mesh walls of the centrifuge, in which only sucrose crystals remain. The purity of this raw sugar is 96-97%. The removed molasses (mascuite fluid) is boiled again, crystallized and centrifuged. The resulting second portion of raw sugar is somewhat less pure. Then another crystallization is carried out. The remaining edema often still contains up to 50% sucrose, but it is no longer able to crystallize due to the large number of impurities. This product (“black molasses”) is used in the United States mainly as livestock feed. In some countries, for example in India, where the soil is in dire need of fertilizers, the massecuite is simply plowed into the ground. Refining it briefly boils down to the following. First, raw sugar is mixed with sugar syrup to dissolve the remaining molasses enveloping the crystals. The resulting mixture (affination massecuite) is centrifuged. The centrifuged crystals are washed with steam to obtain an almost white product. It is dissolved into a thick syrup, lime and phosphoric acid are added to float the impurities, and then filtered through bone char (a black granular material obtained from animal bones). The main task at this stage is complete decolorization and deashing of the product. For refining 45 kg of dissolved raw sugar, from 4.5 to 27 kg of bone char are consumed. The exact ratio cannot be determined because the filter's absorption capacity decreases with use. The resulting white mass is evaporated and, after crystallization, centrifuged, i.e. They treat it in much the same way as with sugar cane juice, after which the refined sugar is dried, removing residues from it (approx. 1%) water. Production.

In order to understand what sugar is made from in our country, it is worth turning to the regulatory documents that regulate its production. First of all, this is GOST No. 52678-2006, approved in 2006 (December 27). According to its provisions, various types (including raw, powdered and refined sugar) are produced from sugar beets.

Sugar beets are a root crop that can be grown in the climatic conditions of Russia, unlike palm trees, sugar cane, certain varieties of sorghum and millet, from which sweet extractives are obtained in other areas of the planet (South-East Asia, China, Cuba, Japan) .

To find out what sugar is made from, you need to consider in general terms the technological chain of production of this product. At the first stages, the sugar beet roots (they are light, not red in color, by the way) are washed, weighed and chopped into shavings. Then, in a diffuser, the juice is extracted from the raw material using hot water. It contains about 15% sucrose. The juice is separated from the so-called pulp, which is fed to livestock feed.

Many people, thinking about what sugar is made from, do not even imagine how many additional components are involved in this process. For example, the resulting beet juice is mixed with lime milk, then, after the impurities are precipitated, carbon dioxide is passed through the solution for filtration (sometimes the mixture is filtered through

What sugar is made from looks like sugar syrup after being refined. It is further evaporated, processed and filtered again. At this stage, the solution already contains about 60% sugar. After which the raw material must be crystallized in vacuum devices at a temperature of about 75 degrees Celsius. The resulting mixtures are passed through centrifuges to separate the sucrose from the molasses, resulting in crystalline sugar.

How is refined sugar made? The usual method used here is to dry and press sugar syrup, which is subsequently cut into cubes. A more complex and expensive method allows the syrup to be initially poured into molds into which refined sugar is added. The raw materials are dried in molds, removed and separated.

Today you can find quite expensive brown sugar on the shelves. Its color is determined by the fact that the components of cane molasses are not completely separated from the sugar raw material, which gives it additional aroma and color. How is sugar made from cane? This product is similar to the sugar cycle from beets. But there are also certain features. For example, at the first stage the juice is squeezed out using rollers, and processing is characterized by the use of a small amount of lime (up to 3% of the weight of the beets and up to 0.07% of the weight of the stems).

Which sugar is healthier is up to everyone to decide for themselves. Reed is subject to less chemical exposure, which, on the one hand, is good, but on the other hand, it can produce unwanted impurities. In addition, brown sugar is considered higher in calories than white sugar.

Asked by: petr kurow (Rostov-on-Don)

What else is sugar made from besides beets and cane?

Answers from the experienced: What is sugar made from?

Dew (Moscow)

The oldest type of sugar is cane sugar, and its homeland is Bengal in India (now Bangladesh). Europeans, represented by the soldiers of Alexander the Great, tried sugar for the first time and reported that they had found “honey”, which is obtained without the participation of bees. During the Crusades, huge sugar cane plantations were discovered in Syria. Local residents boiled sugar from cane in clay pots. There was a time when sugar was considered an expensive medicine and was bought in pharmacies. In 1747, the German chemist Andreas-Sigismund Marggraff (1709--1782) isolated the first European sugar from sugar beets. In 1802, the first Russian sugar factory opened its doors in the village of Alyabyevo, Tula province. Here sugar was made from beets, which were grown nearby.

What we now call sugar is almost pure (99.75%) sucrose.
Sugar is a very high-calorie food product.
Sucrose (a disaccharide) breaks down into glucose and fructose (monosaccharides) when heated in the presence of water. This chemical reaction is called sucrose inversion.
Glucose, which is obtained as a result of the breakdown of sucrose, instantly enters the blood, is extremely easily absorbed by the body and quickly restores a person’s strength. However, when there is an excess intake of sugar, glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver. Then the excess glycogen turns into fat, which leads to excess weight (obesity - cellulite). Sugar consumption by adults should not exceed 80-100 g per day.

Of all carbohydrates (sugars), glucose is the most important for the life of plants, animals and humans. Glucose is found in free form in fruits (for example, in grapes - hence its old name "grape sugar"), and in flower nectar and honey, along with fructose and sucrose. Glucose is found in the blood of humans and animals, and its concentration is relatively constant (about 0.1%). If there is less glucose in the blood, then the release of energy in muscle and other tissues of the body is weakened or completely stopped; hypoglycemia occurs. In diabetes (“sugar disease”) there is more glucose in the blood and urine than expected, and this also causes a serious condition, even a diabetic coma.

Glucose and products rich in it are used for therapeutic nutrition of weakened patients and people performing work involving great nervous and physical stress.

Fructose (“fruit sugar”) was first isolated in 1847; It is found in free form in vegetables, fruits and bee honey. Fructose has a pleasant sweet taste and is easily soluble in water and ethyl alcohol; when cold and in an acidic environment, it seems sweeter than sucrose.

Fructose and glucose have the same formulas, but their molecules differ in spatial structure - fructose is an isomer of glucose. Until the discovery of insulin, fructose was an essential food product for diabetics. Replacing regular sugar with fructose in the diet reduces the risk of dental caries. However, fructose as a food component also has disadvantages: for example, it forms very strong complex compounds with iron, which impairs the absorption of this element. Because fructose enhances the inherent aroma and flavor of fruits and vegetables, it is tempting to use it for canning instead of or along with sugar.

Sergey Safonov (Nizhny Novgorod)

made from maple syrup

Source: so I know

slacker (Ufa)

from nitrogen compounds

igor kuchta (St. Petersburg)

unas na sowode delaüt samenitel saxara esliu interesno mogu usnat is 4ego no to4no ne is swekli i trasneka

Marinelle (St. Petersburg)

The Aztecs used corn syrup as a sweetener - a very viscous, almost colorless liquid obtained directly from corn starch. They made it (sweet syrup) from corn in much the same way as sugar is made from cane in our time. Molasses is significantly inferior to refined sugar in terms of sweetness, but it makes it possible to regulate the crystallization process in the manufacture of sweets and is much cheaper than sugar, therefore it is widely used in confectionery.

Honey, which is high in fructose and glucose, is more expensive than sugar, and is added to some foods only when a special taste is required. In the Bible, honey is mentioned quite often, and “sweet cane” only twice, from which we can conclude that honey was the main sweetener in biblical times; This, by the way, is confirmed by historical evidence, according to which sugar cane began to be grown in the Middle East in the first centuries of our era.

CANADIANS use MAPLE SYRUP INSTEAD OF SUGAR, which is valued primarily for its specific aroma. It contains 3 times more calcium than brown sugar, but there is no copper at all. But there is magnesium, which is very beneficial for women’s health.

IN CHINA - sugar syrup is obtained from the stems of sorghum.

INDIA is practically the only country where PALM SUGAR is produced on a commercial scale, but this country produces much more cane sugar.

IN JAPAN, MALT SUGAR PRODUCED FROM STARCH RICE OR MILLET has been used as a sweet additive for over 2000 years. This substance (maltose) can also be obtained from ordinary starch using yeast. It is much inferior to sucrose in sweetness, but is used in the manufacture of baked goods and various types of baby food. Prehistoric man satisfied his need for sugar through honey and fruits. Some flowers, whose nectar contains a small amount of sucrose, probably served the same purpose.

SUGAR FROM FLOWERS...

In India, more than 4,000 years ago, a kind of raw sugar was extracted from the flowers of the Madhuca tree.

Africans in the Cape Colony used the species Melianthus major for this, and the Boers in South Africa used Protea cynaroides.